“A CHRISTIAN RESPONSE TO POVERTY, WEALTH, AND ECONOMIC OPPRESSION”

1. INTRODUCTION

The recent movie, Slumdog Millionaire[1] has portrayed some glimpses of Indian poverty. Many have argued that the film portrays Indian poverty in the goriest details, which provides a voyeuristic pleasure to the Western audience.[2] However, at the backdrop of its story, there is a significant portrayal of the widening gap of the rich and poor in our nation. We must understand that the problem of poverty is not only Indian dilemma, or the emerging trouble only with developing countries[3], but it is the world phenomenon. The United States of America has the most unequal distribution of income and wealth of any developed country. [4]

Therefore, the primary goal of the paper is to engage in and contribute to biblical perspectives on the problem of poverty, wealth, and economic oppression both in global and Indian contexts, in order that we as Christians will reflect on this problem and respond to it in biblical way. While economic oppression deals with the practice of bonded labor, forced labor, low wages, denial of equal opportunity, practicing employment discrimination based on sex, nationality, race and religion,[5] the paper will see economic oppression as one of the results of the so-called gap between the rich and the poor.

The paper will limit itself mainly to the following three tasks: First, the paper will argue that the problem of dire poverty and growing economic inequality in global and Indian contexts is the preeminent moral challenge in our day. Second, it will draw upon the biblical perspectives on the issues, focusing on some of the Old Testament and the New Testament passages. Third, the appropriate Christian response to the problem will be suggested.

2. THE PROBLEM STATED

One of the greatest contemporary challenges is the increasing disparity between wealth[6] and poverty[7] both between and within nations. The chasm between the poor and the rich is widening. Around 50% of the global population is classified as poor living on less than two dollars a day.[8] According to the United Nations Human Development Report in 1999, one fifth of the world’s people, those living in the developed world, produce 86% of the world’s gross domestic product (GDP), 82% of exports and 68% of the world’s telephone lines. The bottom fifth in the poorest countries produces about 1% in each category. Since 1994, the 200 richest people in the world have more than doubled their network to one billion dollars. Sadly, the income gap between the richest fifth and the poorest fifth of the world’s population increased from thirty to one in 1960 to seventy four to one in 1997.[9]

The so-called global economy system[10] is blamed as the main cause of such disparity between wealth and poverty. One can say without any hesitation that India is very much affected by such global economic policies. Between 1991 and 2006, the number of people who live under poverty line has considerably increased. The poor now total 350-440 millions in the country. There can be many causes of poverty such as corruption, exploitation, overpopulation, deficits, entanglements and the like.[11] The results of poverty are root causes of most of the world’s unresolved problems, including starvation, illiteracy, environmental degradation, violent conflict, and unnecessary illnesses that range from Guinea work to HIV/AIDS.[12]

As we are aware, the present turmoil that India, along with other countries, undergoes is market meltdown because of the financial crisis in the United States of America. Thousands of people are jobless due to this sudden economic crisis. One of the root causes of such problem perhaps is a constant lust towards materialism. The society is becoming more of want-based rather than need-based. Consequently, at one’s luxury life, someone suffers. Where is the concern for our neighbor? Further Capitalism[13] is rampant in our society. Its economic system that is based on a free market, open competition, profit motive and private ownership of the means of production, results further damage to our society: the rich get richer and the poor become poorer. Where then is an egalitarian understanding of humanity? Sadly, in some parts of India, caste discrimination, slavery, and class system play a vital role in the nation’s poverty.

This economic gap between the rich and the poor offends our deepest sense of fairness and human solidarity and the real problem is one of responsibility. There are no easy solutions for widening gap of the rich and the poor but there are hard questions. What is our responsibility to humanity as a whole?[14] Truly, the problem of dire poverty and growing economic inequality in global and Indian contexts is the preeminent moral challenge in our day.

3. BIBLICAL PERSPECTIVES ON POVERTY, WEALTH, AND ECONOMIC OPPRESSION

3.1 The Old Testament Perspectives

3.1.1 Stewardship and Sharing of Resources

Right from the beginning, the Old Testament contributes to the economic ethics both explicitly and implicitly. Creation narratives present certain implications like stewardship, sharing of resources etc. Regarding Gen. 1:26, Christopher Wright suggests that the creation narratives provide a complementary aspect of the earth in relationship to God and man.[15] God as a Creator is Lord, the owner of Creation subordinates the economic status of human. In fact, human as a part of God’s creation nullifies his/her absolute authority over Creation. Since human is made in the image of God, therefore, God destined His responsibility to be the trustee of creation. Further, the juxtaposed phrases “Let us make man…, Let them rule…” suggests that Creation is for man to be a responsible caretaker.[16] Gordon Wenham comments that, man rules the world on God’s behalf, which in any way means an unbridled exploitation and subjugation,[17] rather the word, hdr (radah) is to be understood in terms of care giving, nurturing contrary to exploitation.[18] Within the context of man’s dominion over Creation, man’s subordinate ownership is granted which resulted in stewardship. In addition, Creation narratives also suggest sharing of resources as well as responsibility of work. Since the Creation is for the entire humankind, the resources should be available to all. Wright explains that the Creation narratives never encourages private or individual ownership rather, the attitude must be that God owns the property and every individual is to hold in trust to expose the responsibility and administration of Creation.

Various stipulations under the Sinai Covenant have the role in under girding the economic life of the people of Israel. Observing Sabbath, Sabbatical year, and the year of Jubilee (Exod. 23:12) even though have religious connotation, also promotes the economic growth of the weaker strata of the society. These laws limit the material possessions one could accumulate, simply by shortening the length of time one was allowed to work.[19] More over, these occasions can be an opportunity for the poor to access the land and slaves were given a lifetime opportunity of freedom (Lev. 25: 1-13). The economic laws like honesty in measurements (Lev. 19: 35, 36; Deut. 25:13-16), instruction against bribes (Exod. 23:8, Deut. 16:19), and eighth and tenth commandments in the Decalogue fall in this category.[20] While the eighth commandment, stealing others property is to disrespect their labor (Lev. 19:11, 13), in the tenth commandment, the verb dmx (hamad) means to desire, yearn for, covet, lust after some one or something[21] which John Durham explains the basic form prohibits an obsessive desire of the property belonging to others which implies self content.[22] Similarly, the cultic laws add to the economic life of the people of Israel. Deut. 14:22-27 deals with stipulations about tithes and offerings, which ultimately is an act of worship and acknowledging God for his blessings. Part of tithes is distributed to the under privileged which means God’s people benefits from God’s property.

3.1.2 Right Handling of Wealth

Two important themes such as industry and faithfulness leads to God’s blessing (Pss. 112, 128; Prov. 12:11, 13: 21, 21: 5) and the poor are not relieved but the wicked rich continue to flourish (Ps 37: 16-17, Prov. 15: 16-17) run through the wisdom writings.[23] Further, some Psalms identifies and encourages the material poor as pious (Ps 40:17, 86:1). The book of Ecclesiastes continues with the theme of transience of wealth (Eccl. 5:8-17, 6:1-12) and concludes with a call to fear God and obey his commands (12:13).[24] However, the book is not negative towards wealth rather, it encourages to enjoy God’s blessings within the context of dedicated service to God (2: 24-26, 3: 12-13, 5:18-20, 9: 7-10). Even the book of Proverbs identifies the righteousness and humility as the sources of acquiring wealth (Prov. 10:3, 22: 4). It stresses on industriousness, which condemns other means like stealing, heavy interest in loaning, earning by exploiting and oppressing weak (21: 5, 27: 23-24, 12: 11, 14: 23). H. D. Preuss suggests that sages quiet naturally and intentionally dealt with wealth and poverty (Prov. 10:2, 16, 13: 22, 20: 21).[25] Virtues like wisdom, righteousness, love and peace were compared to the transience of wealth, which ultimately suggests choosing the former than the latter (3: 13-16, 8:10-11, 15: 16-17, 17:1, 19:1, 22, 22: 1, 28:6).[26]

3.1.3 Prophetic Denunciation against Economic Oppressors

The prophets, in their woe oracles, denounced those who oppressed people economically. The prophet Isaiah denounced the elders and princes of Jerusalem because they have led the people astray and have oppressed the poor (10:1-2). However, the first two woes of Habakkuk (Hab 2:6b-11) speak of economic violence and the retribution of God’s judgment. The first woe is the doom of the robber, thief, the embezzler, the dishonest person, and the one who appropriates for himself that which belongs to another. The reference to jyjib[, “pledges” refers to goods or cash that has been deposited with a creditor as surety for a loan or debt of some sort. Deut 24:10-13 forbids the creditor from taking such a pledge forcibly from a debtor.[27] Here Habakkuk is accusing Jehoiakim of such activity as Jer 5:26 accuses the king for seizing household goods. Therefore, the very reason for the coming of the judgment on the oppressor is the cruel violence done to the whole of creation, people and their lands, the city and all its inhabitants. The second woe is the doom of the exploiters and extortioners. It accuses the oppressor of engaging in extortion to build his own dynasty. The crime is the acquisition of [r [cB, “an evil gain or unjust gain” which is a vice of covetousness. The term for “evil gain” comes from a weavers term, “to cut off the threads” and it is used several times in the Old Testament in the sense of evil gain (Gen 37:26; Jer 6:13; Mic 4:3). Such unjust gain is probably the payment of tribute demanded by the oppressor as their dominion over nations that came under their control. Although the oppressor seem to be secure as he built his house on high het the stone in the walls of the house and the wood of the beams will cry out against him. The reference to setting the nest on high to keep it safe from harm is a metaphor of a bird’s nest just to portray the efforts of the oppressor to employ such extorted gain to secure his own dwelling. Such thing symbolizes the arrogance of the oppressor. Sweeney mentions that during the reign of Nebuchadrezzar the city of Babylon was rebuilt into a magnificent capital city.[28]

3.2 The New Testament Perspectives

The New Testament does not speak explicitly on contemporary issues that hook our attention like economic oppression. However, wealth and poverty are mentioned in the first century context which need to be seen for the biblical principles in their implication to the twenty-first century global or national plight. Our social concern is different from the first century Palestine. In peasant societies, "poor" is not exactly a designation of social rank or "class" or economic rank referring to the lowest standing in a series of such ranks. Money is not the determiner of that status as it is in our society rather it is the birth status regardless of high or low is usually brings honor.[29]

3.2.1 Jesus’ Compassion for the Poor

Jesus, the Son of God born into this world as a poor man (Luke. 2:2, 24, 9:58). He did not teach that having material possession or wealth is evil, but he warned that it would be difficult for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God (Matt. 19:23-24).[30] The parable of rich man (Luke.12:16-20) is a haunting exposure of egocentric use of wealth.[31] Jesus also understood money or wealth as the ultimate concern of life was evil. He said no one can serve two masters (Matt. 6:24). The word ‘mammon’ (mamwnaj) means money, wealth or poverty. In Jewish usage, it often refers to dishonest gain. Jesus had a great concern for that to which a man erroneously seeks security (Luke. 12:15) and gives his heart (Matt. 6:21). Mammon is unrighteous (Luke. 16: 11) when it is accumulated dishonestly or by oppression.[32]

In the Nazreth Manifesto Jesus announces the ‘good news’ to the poor (Luke. 4:18, 19) who are, “the sociologically poor-all those who, categorized of the economically deprived and socially out cast.”[33] Therefore Razouselie Lasetso quotes Robert C. Tannehill and argues that “the good news to the poor is also that the message as announced by Jesus accompanies and ethical challenge to the rich with enough resources to share with the poor to improve their deplorable condition” Jesus had compassion for poor (Luk.10:29, 37; Mk.10:21; Luk.6:27, 38; Matt. 6:1-14). “Compassion is the attitude that motivates concern for the poor and giving, it dovetails with the meaning of arms giving.” [34]

It is incompatible to say that Jesus was against the wealthy (Mt. 27:57; Lk. 19:18ff.) for his forgiveness was extended to Zacchaeus (Lk. 19:1-10) then he chose to do what was expected of him as a truly saved man.[35] Jesus taught that our priority should be one of seeking God's righteousness rather than on our (Mt. 6:19ff., 24, 33; Lk. 12:15, 33ff.) material wealth and possession for it will be difficult to serve both God and money.

3.2.2 Generosity of the Early Church for the Poor

2 Corinthians has got a good deal with the issue that we are dealing with. There the terms “poor” and “poverty” has the same root. The term ptwco.j, which means “poor,” points mainly to economic poverty as the same term is used to mention even a beggar (Lk. 16:20). In 2 Corinthians 8:9, Paul says that though Lord Jesus was in the state of plou,sioj (rich) he became ptwco.j, that his believers might become plou,sioj. The context in 2 Corinthians 8 seems to be poverty in the Jerusalem church. Therefore, Paul deals with collection for the needy saints in Jerusalem in 8:1-15. In 8:9, Simon J. Kistemaker sees that the plou,sioj of Christ  refers to his incarnation. He sees even a parallel between 2 Cor. 8:9 and Phil. 2.[36] Here Paul’s implication seems to be that Christ’s richness became the poverty for the Corinthians. Therefore, the richness here corresponds with the richness of generosity in vv. 1-2. Therefore, in v.9, it is, Christ being rich in generosity (He gave himself), became poor to the extent of suffering absolute naked poverty of crucifixion, so that through his poverty his believers, especially the Corinthian church might become rich in generosity. Here the point for Paul was that even as Christ was rich in generosity in giving himself, and that the churches of Macedonia exhibited that generosity by giving willingly out of their poverty (v.2), he urges even the Corinthian believers to display that generosity to the needy saints in Jerusalem.

The early church had a great concern for the poor among them. It was much more evident as the church began in Acts 2 and 4. It says, “They would sell their possessions and goods and distribute the proceeds to all, as any had need” (Acts 2:45). Further, it is said, “There was not a needy person among them…” (4:34). Here it does not mean that the apostles urged the early Christians for compulsory poverty. For in 4:36 we read of Joseph, who sold his field. For it says from v.34 that when others were selling lands, or houses, this Joseph sold one field. Moreover, Stott convincingly says that some believers still had houses in which they met.[37]

3.2.3 Caring Fellow Poor People

The epistles strongly emphasize that the self-emptiness of Jesus and his words are basis for Christian response to the perils and dangers of poverty and wealth (Phil. 2:5-8; Acts 20:25). Like Jesus, Paul taught that worldly or materially wealth is temporary but not evil by nature. However, the tendency of evil is there in loving wealth.[38] According to Paul, biblical stewardship is a mean of responding the economic oppression (1Tim. 5:3-5) and more expectation is more on the materially rich (1Tim. 6:17-19). This Christian concept reveals Christian existence and giving.[39] Practicing Christian ethics such as remembering the poor (Mt. 26:11) and sharing other's burden (Gal. 2:10) are automatically revolutionaries to economic oppression. For these reasons, Christians are the most responsible for reaction against the issue of the society as a whole.

In his epistle, James deals with the issue of rich and the poor in 1:9-11; 2:1-12 and 4:13-5:6. Douglas Moo sees that the rich in James are the rich believers. He further says that the condemnation on the rich is not for them being rich, instead for their sinful actions.[40]  However, he maintains that for James, accumulating wealth when other is going without the necessities of life is sinful (5:2-3).[41] Duane Warden sees it as the rich property owners oppressing the poor hard-working laborers. For him James’ letter is about justice and equity for the working poor. He sees that James’ view of God as favoring the poor workers in opposition to “great” men who have gold and pedigree.[42] Here whether the rich refers to the proprietors who are unbelievers or believers, James is clear against the rich oppressing the poor. From the point of poor, it can be said that God favors the poor, because of social and economic oppression, though he is not partial. In addition, especially when James says that God has chosen the poor in the world to be rich in faith (2:5), a parallel can be drawn here with 1 Cor. 1:27. As Moo pointed out God is not against the rich for they are rich, but against their accumulation of wealth in which they neglect the poor.[43] Also gaining wealth at the expense of the poor in defrauding them. At the same time, James’ condemnation of the rich is also a warning to the poor recipients against materialism.

4. A CHRISTIAN RESPONSE

Jana L Webb rightly comments “the Church of Jesus Christ must stand with God against injustice, struggling side by side with the poor.”[44] What makes Christian response unique is that we as Christians see those who are lacking life necessities as God sees them. In the economic structure, the accumulation of wealth by rich and its unfair distribution makes people poor and destitute.[45]  Therefore, we are “not just concerned with poverty but mass poverty, or more rightly with the yawning chasm between rich and the poor.”[46] Our “God is greatly concerned about the man’s situation. He always has been concerned with victims of oppression in justice, poverty and need.” [47] So the attitude of Jesus towards the wealth, poor and the rich can be the response of the Christians towards the issues.

To be compassionate and generous towards the poor, one need not be rich and affluent. Rather it is exercising God-given love for our neighbor. God has entrusted His resources to humankind so that they would be good stewards to Him. Sharing of the resources is very much part of godly character. Whenever we see social injustices, such as economic oppressions we as Christians need to rise up our voice to defend the poor just as prophets did. Because God takes side of the poor. The Bible is not against owning riches and wealth but using them responsibly so that the needy around us would be equally benefitted.

The Church should follow the early church’s activities for her concern for the poor and the needy. The early church made not only adjustment for poverty and wealth in helping and being helped by selling possession to contribute to the church or sharing property. Thereby, the Jerusalem church removed the initial financial crisis of the new community of believer (Acts 4:32ff.). The early church also sacrificially took some efforts to solve financial crisis by fund-raising (Rom.15:26; 1Cor. 16:2; 2Cor. 8:25). As much as possible, the Church should raise fund on behalf of those who are in poverty. Stott sums up Christian response to poverty, wealth and economic oppression into three: simple lifestyle, contentment and generosity.[48] It is sure that Christian response to this is not a passive at all, but the active one with a constructive attitude.[49]

The Bible emphasizes on giving to the poor for their sustenance. Giving to the poor is obvious as well as a familiar practice among the Christians in response to eradicate poverty. D. T Williams mentions that some Christians who accepts the need of charity confines themselves to give to the Christian poor where as some reject this concept from a belief that it will actually aggravate the problem of causing dependence and will ultimately widen the gulf between the rich and the poor.[50] Further, he opines that the practice of charity may generate the sense of pride and power in the giver, and humility in the recipient, which will in turn increase mutual hostility.[51] Amidst these views, Christians should respond to the underlying causes of poverty in order to provide a solution on a permanent basis. The Church can address the issues of population explosion by teaching as well as practicing family planning. Moreover, the Church can be generous in providing education opportunities to the poor Children and orphans as well as vocational training for the widows to enhance opportunities for their self-employment.

5. CONCLUSION

The problem of poverty and growing economic inequality in global and Indian contexts is the preeminent moral challenge in our day. The Bible talks about different themes such as stewardship, sharing of resources to the needy, healthy handing of wealth, God’s retributive judgment against economic oppressors, Jesus’ compassion towards the poor, the early church’s generosity for helping the needy etc. We as Christians must see the problem of poverty as God sees it in concrete level and acts upon it. The church must meet both people’s material and spiritual needs. In that, way we can slowly narrow the gap between the rich and the poor. The church must be egalitarian in its mission.

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[1]Slumdog Millionaire is a 2008 British film directed by Danny Boyle. It is the story of a young man from the slums of Mumbai who appears on the Indian version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? and exceeds people's expectations, arousing the suspicions of the game show host and of law enforcement officials. The film was nominated for ten Academy Awards in 2009 and won eight, the most for any film of 2008, including Best Picture and Best Director. It also won five Critics' Choice Awards, four Golden Globes, and seven BAFTA Awards, including Best Film. The Wikipedia, “Slumdog Millionaire,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slumdog_Millionaire#cite_ref-2 (accessed on March 16, 2009).

[2]Subhanil, “Slumdog Millionaire: Wrapping poverty in fantasy,” The Pragoti, http://www.pragoti.org/node/3112 (accessed on March 16, 2009).

[3]A developing country is a country that has often-low standards of democratic governments, industrialization, social programs, and human rights guarantees for its citizens. India is one of many developing countries. The Wikipedia, “Developing Countries,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_countries (accessed on March 16, 2009).

[4]Daniel Jones Muthunayagam, “Economic Inequality in Contemporary India: A sociological Perspective,” Bangalore Inter-Theologate Seminar, Ecumenical Christian Centre (February 10, 2007), 2.

[5]Indo-Asian News Service, “Immigrants less likely to find Jobs because of racial prejudices.” http://lifestyle.in.msn.com/work/article.aspx?cp-documentid=1943965. (accessed 14 March, 2009).

[6]Wealth is an abundance of valuable possessions or money and it is the state of being rich. It is virtually synonymous with riches, and both may refer to family, friends, or even moral qualities. Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson, “Poverty,” Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); Walter A. Elwell and Philip Wesley Comfort, Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale reference library (Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House Publishers, 2001), 1297.

[7]Poverty can be defined in many ways. In general, poverty is the state of being extremely poor. People who are stricken by poverty lack life’s necessities such as food, shelter, land clean water, and even options or choices in life. However, total poverty may be best viewed as a lack of wholeness, a lack of economic, physical, mental and emotional, social and political, spiritual, and environmental needs. Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson, “Poverty,” Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); Dan Brewster, Child, Church, and Mission: A Resource Book for Christian Child Development Workers (n.p: Compassion International, 2005), 52-53.

[8]Tandon, Yash. "Wealth and poverty: challenge to churches." Ecumenical Review 58, no. 1-2 (January 2006): 108-111. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0001563566&site=ehost-live&scope=site (accessed March 16, 2009).

[9]Muthunayagam, “Economic Inequality in Contemporary India,” 2.

[10]Global economy is a revolution that enables any capital investor invest money anywhere in the world and with that money utilize technology, communications, management and labour located anywhere the entrepreneur wants to produce goods or services that can be sold anywhere there are customers. Daniel Jones Muthunayagam, “Economic Inequality in Contemporary India: A sociological Perspective,” Bangalore Inter-Theologate Seminar, Ecumenical Christian Centre (February 10, 2007), 1.

[11]Brewster, Child, Church, and Mission, 56.

[12]Jimmy Carter, “The Nobel Lecture,” http://www.nobel.no/eng_lect2002b.html, Quoted in In Jocob Cherian, “Towards a Biblical-Theological Response to Growing Economic Inequality in the Indian Context,” Bangalore Inter-Theologate Seminar, Ecumenical Christian Centre (February 10, 2007), 2.

[13]Capitalism is an economic system in which wealth, and the means of producing wealth, are privately owned and controlled rather than commonly, publicly, or state-owned and controlled. The Wikipedia, “Capitalism,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism (accessed on March 16, 2009).

[14]Jonathan Sacks, The Dignity of Difference: How to Avoid the Clash of Civilizations (London & New York: Continuum, 2002, 2003), 28. In Jocob Cherian, “Towards a Biblical-Theological Response to Growing Economic Inequality in the Indian Context,” Bangalore Inter-Theologate Seminar, Ecumenical Christian Centre (February 10, 2007), 2.

[15]Christopher J. H. Wright, An Eye for an Eye: The Place of OT Ethics Today (Illinois: Intervarsity, 1983), 67. 

[16]Wright, An Eye for an Eye, 68.

[17]Gordon J. Wenham, Gen. 1-15, WBC, vol. 1 (Dallas, Texas: Word, 1987), 33.

[18]Terrence E. Fretheim, Genesis-Leviticus, New Interpreters Bible, vol. 1 (Nashville: Abingdon, 1994), 346.

[19]John I. Durham, Exodus 20-40, WBC, vol. 3 (Dallas, Texas: Word, 1987), 299.

[20]Cornelis Houtman finds theft includes secret moving of the boundary markers also (Deut. 19:14, 27: 17). Cornelis Houtman, Exodus, HCOT, vol. 3 (Leuven: Peters, 2000), 64.

[21]John T. Willis, “dmh,” In G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, Eds., Translated by John T. Willis, John T and Geoffrey W. Bromiley, Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament,  vol.4 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 452-453.

[22]Durham, Exodus 20-40, 299.

[23]Craig L. Blomberg, Neither poverty nor riches (Leicester: IVP, 1999), 60.

[24]Blomberg, Neither poverty nor riches, 61.

[25]Horst Dietrich Preuss, Old Testament Theology, vol. 2 (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1992), 205.

[26]Blomberg, Neither poverty nor riches, 62.

[27]Sweeney, The Twelve Prophets, Berit Olam: Studies in Hebrew Narrative & Poetry (Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 2000), 474.

[28]Sweeney, The Twelve Prophets, 475.

[29]Bruce J. Malina, The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology rev. edn (Louisville,

Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993), 105.

[30]Emmanuel James, Ethics: A Biblical Perspective (Bangalore: Theological Book Trust, 1992), 240.

[31]Peter Rhea Jones, “Biblical Teachings of Stewardship” in http://searcg.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? Direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA 0000746750&site=ehost-live&scope=site (accessed on March 16, 2009),146.

[32]Jones, “Biblical Teachings of Stewardship”, 145.

[33]J. Murickan S J.(ed), Poverty in India: Challenges and Responses (Bangalore: Xavier Board Publication, 1988), 275.

[34]Jones, “Biblical Teachings of Stewardship”, 148.

[35] Stott, New Issues, 275.

[36]Simon J. Kistemaker, II Corinthians: New Testament Commentary, (Grand Rapids, Mich., Baker, 1997), 282.

[37]John Stott, New Issues Facing Christians Today, (Mumbai: GLS, 2003), 275.

[38] In producing wealth, Christian must observe personal justice and kindness (in the midst of the opposite behavior) in relation to (employers or) employees, suppliers, purchasers and the public generally.  It is a fault to pay the wages less than the entitling worth, or to deal unfairly in buying and selling, or to misrepresent the product, or to produce or sell anything that damages other physically, mentally and morally. See in Redmond Mullin, The Wealth of Christian (Exeter, Devon: The Paternoster Press Ltd., 1983), 176.

[39] Jones, “Biblical Teaching on Stewardship,”148.

[40]Douglas J. Moo, The Letter of James: The Pillar New Testament Commentary, (Grand Rapids, Mich., 2000), 36.

[41]Moo, James, 36,

[42]Duane Warden, “The Rich and Poor in James: Implications for Institutionalized Partiality,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, 43/2, (2000), 249, 250, http://www.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=117&sid=850e97el-bc5b-4f87-ab92-be62d7779cb8%40sessionmgr9 (accessed on 17 March 2009).

[43]Moo, James, 36.

[44]Jana L. Webb, Economic Justice: 6 studies for individuals or groups, Globlal issues Bible Studies (Illinois: Intervarsity Press, 1990), 19

[45]M. Stephen, Introducing Christian Ethics (Delhi: ISPCK, 2003), 14.

[46]Somen Das, Christian Ethics and Indian Ethos, rev. and enl. (Delhi: ISPCK, 2001), 14.

[47]James, Ethics, 239.

^[48]Stott, New Issues Facing Christians Today, 281.

^[49]Redmond Mullin, The Wealth of Christian (Exeter, Devon: The Paternoster Press Ltd., 1983), 176.

[50]D.T. Williams, “Poverty: An Integrated Christian Approach,” JTSA 77 (1991) 47-57. http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=151&sid=54afb9fa-4c11-4fa2-829a-36476fa7%40sessionmgr107. (accessed 14 March 2009), 48.

[51]Williams, “Poverty: An Integrated Christian Approach,” 48.